Big businesses are asking world leaders to do more to address climate change. The top executive from these companies – BG Group, BP, Eni, Royal Dutch Shell, Statoil and Total – called for a tax on carbon emissions. What they are asking for is for an efficient and predictable policy to limit greenhouse gas emissions. Thus, a carbon tax would raise the price of fossil fuels, with more taxes collected on fuels that generate more emissions. The objective for this tax is to reduce demand for high-carbon emission fuels and increase demand for lower-emission fuels like natural gas, solar, wind, nuclear and hydroelectric that would face lower taxes or no taxes. The tax must also be applied to imported goods from countries that do not asses a similar charge on the use of fossil fuels. In the United States, federal and state taxes on gasoline and diesel are effectively carbon taxes. Yet, at the federal level these taxes have not increased since 1993.

However, not all the businesses agree with these taxes. This is why Christopher Knittel, an expert on energy economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, says that a properly calibrated carbon price in the United States could effectively replace all the climate-related regulations businesses do not like, including renewable fuel mandates and President Obama’s Clean Power Plan. That would create a clear incentive for businesses and consumers to use less fuel, invest in efficiency and switch to cleaner energy. The only other necessary action, in Professor Knittel’s view, would be more government support for research and development to accelerate the quest for new energy technologies.

References:

• (2015, June 06). The Case for a Carbon Tax. Retrieved April 19, 2016, from http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/07/opinion/the-case-for-a-carbon-tax.html
• Porter, E. (2016, March 01). Does a Carbon Tax Work? Ask British Columbia. Retrieved April 19, 2016, from http://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/02/business/does-a-carbon-tax-work-ask-british-columbia.html

Polar bears, which depend on seasonal sea ice which they use as a platform to hunt mammals after their summer fast, are declining in number really fast. There are less than 25,000 polar bears left and its population will decline by 30% by 2050 due to the loss of their habitat. The amount of sea ice at its lowest point each year has shrunk at a rate of 14% per decade.  Thus, annual ice-free periods of five months will spread hunger among polar

The ice is freezing later in the fall, but its is the earlier spring ice melt that is especially difficult for the bears since they have a narrower timeframe in which to hunt during the critical season when the seal pups are born. That has direct impact on the average bears weight, which has dropped 15% causing reproduction rates to decline. Also, remaining ice is farther from shore making it less accessible. These larger gaps of open water make the bears’ swim more hazardous

The shrinking polar ice cap will also cause a decline of seals. Thus, polar bears are started to display cannibalistic behavior due to longer periods of hunger, instead of killing others for dominance or so they can breed with the female.

However, warming temperatures are not the only threat polar bears face; human invasion, pollution and resource exploitation add to this negative spiral.We should start taking action before it is too late to help prevent potentially catastrophic consequences.

References:

• Neslen, A. (2015, November 18). Climate change is ‘single biggest threat’ to polar bear survival. Retrieved April 11, 2016, from http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/nov/19/climate-change-is-single-biggest-threat-to-polar-bear-survival
• Global Warming and Polar Bears – National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved April 11, 2016, from http://www.nwf.org/Wildlife/Threats-to-Wildlife/Global-Warming/Effects-on-Wildlife-and-Habitat/Polar-Bears.aspx
• Becker, R. (2015, September 4). 4 Ways Polar Bears Are Dealing With Climate Change. Retrieved April 11, 2016, from http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/09/150904-polar-bears-dolphins-seals-climate-change/

There is plenty of evidence that the sea flooded the interior of continents in Earth history. About 12,000 years ago, the valleys of Western Montana lay underneath a lake nearly 2,000 feet deep. It was then when the failure occurred. The water pressure caused the glacier to become resilient and the water began to escape under the ice dam. Water reached a maximum height at an elevation of 4,200 feet that debilitated the glacial block until water burst through in a devastating flood that raced across Idaho, Oregon and Washington. Huge waves and pieces of ice ripped away soils and mountainsides, deposited massive ripple marks and carved the Columbia River Gorge. At that point, Glacial Lake Missoula was as big as Lakes Erie and Ontario combined and the flood waters ran with the force equal to sixty Amazon Rivers.

Harlen Bretz and Joseph T. Pardee were the two geologists that studied this event to find the causes of the features in eastern Washington. They realized that these features must have been formed by enormous scale flooding of devastating proportion. It took several years for the geologic community to accept their interpretation but thanks to the clues to the puzzle provided by these two geologists we have been able to discover one of the most unbelievable events in history.

References:

• Robbins, J. (2014, August 24). Ice Age Floodwaters Leave a Walkable Trail Across the Northwest. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/learning/teachers/featured_articles/20040824tuesday.html
• United States. National Park Service. (n.d.). Ice Age Floods Alternatives Study: Final Report. Retrieved April 10, 2016, from https://www.nps.gov/iceagefloods
• Glacial Lake Missoula and the Ice Age Floods. (n.d.). Retrieved April 10, 2016, from http://www.glaciallakemissoula.org/

The world is less 40 years away from a food shortage that will have severe consequences for people and governments. That could become as politically threatening by 2050 as energy problems are today. According to Dr. Davies, population will increase to 9 billion people in thirty years, having to increase the food supply a 70% to meet demand. Despite he thinks that biotechnology and genetics will play a key factor to determine our ability to produce that amount of food, more efficient technologies and crops will need to be developed to address this challenge. Increase food demand comes at a time when the world is investing less in agricultural research, increasing the risk of social and political disorder that could lead to civil wars and terrorism.

Climate change could cause a two percent drop each decade of this century. Big countries like Australia, Russia, Canada, China and the United States have suffered big floods and droughts that lead to huge losses. The environment could also get damaged since reducing water levels will become scarcer from overpopulation and its augmented use in agriculture. The only region in the world that will be able to feed itself and others in South America, while countries like India will only meet the 59 percent of its demand by 2030.

More effective agricultural production, better ways to store food and biologically diverse can lead to less vulnerable global changes. Strategies for the future must be discussed and new systems of land, water, energy and biological resources must be applied.

References:

• (2014, April 17). Retrieved April 02, 2016, from https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/04/140417124704.htm
• Koba, M. (2014, October 15). World may not have enough food by 2050: Report. Retrieved April 02, 2016, from http://www.cnbc.com/2014/10/15/world-may-not-have-enough-food-to-eat-by-2050-report.html
• Pimentel, D. (2015, February 9). IMPACT OF POPULATION GROWTH ON FOOD SUPPLIES AND ENVIRONMENTby David Pimentel, Xuewen Huang, Ana Cordova, and Marcia Pimentel. Retrieved April 02, 2016, from http://www.dieoff.com/page57.htm

Water and sanitation are essential to human health, and since 2010 it is a human right approved by the United Nations to have access to safe and clean drinking water. However, in 2016 there a 750 million people that lack access to an improved source of drinking water, 2.5 billion (more than a third of the world’s population) do not have basic sanitation facilities and hundreds of millions do not have soap and water to wash their hands. In many countries, this lack of facilities and access to clean water is helping spread out diseases in communities, households, schools and health centers.

Some critical issues we are facing are related to the challenging way to identify gaps in access and inform policy. Most of the policies proposed by the UN are not effectively applied in many countries, leading to weak country capacity to implement plans. That related to the third main challenge, insufficient funding. National funding needs continue to compensate available resources. However, these funds are unfortunately lacking.

Another huge problem we face is that 1 out of 7 of world population practices open defecation (946 million people). This practice leads to the contamination of drinking water sources and the spread of diseases such as cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, Hepatitis A and typhoid. Eritrea is top of the list (almost 80% of its population does not have access to sanitation facilities. This situation is especially critical in rural areas, in which 90% people practice open defecation. Experts predict that this practice will not be eliminated among the poorest rural areas before 2030.

However, we have made some improvements. Between 1990 and 2012, 2.3 billion people gained access to an improved drinking-water source. Also, children deaths associated with poor water sanitation and hygiene fell from 1.5 million to around 600,000. So our efforts should be focused on those people and contribute to making progress in those areas.

References:

• Purvis, K. (2015, July 01). Access to clean water and sanitation around the world – mapped. Retrieved March 26, 2016, from http://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2015/jul/01/global-access-clean-water-sanitation-mapped
• Hill, T. (2014, November 20). Nearly Half the World Lacks Access to Clean Water and Sanitation-and That’s the Good News. Retrieved March 26, 2016, from http://www.takepart.com/article/2014/11/20/nearly-half-worlds-population-lacks-access-clean-water-and-sanitation
• (2014). INVESTING IN WATER AND SANITATION: INCREASING ACCESS, REDUCING INEQUALITIES. Retrieved from http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/139735/1/9789241508087_eng.pdf?ua=1

Regardless the Unesco spared Great Barrier Reef ‘in danger listing’, the Australian government presented a 35-year program to manage risks to the reef. A report in 2012 from the cited government showed that the reef had lost over half of its coral in less than thirty years!; and it is under growing threats. This is why this program includes monitoring population and breeding, refining water quality and establishing goals for reducing chemicals that end up in the reef coming from a close Marine park.

However, these are not the only threats the reef is experiencing. Human threats are the most hazardous and powerful dangers and include shipping accidents, oil spills, over-fishing (as studied in module 7) and tourist visits among many others. Also, natural threats like coral bleaching and the Crown of Thorns Starfish have huge destructive force on. The increase in water temperature impacts on coral bleaching and affects catastrophically the reef, which can become practically extinct by 2030. This temperature raising is associated with El Nino, which is considered the most powerful control on weather across the planet.

References:

• Robertson, J. (2015, July 01). Unesco spares Great Barrier Reef ‘in-danger’ listing but issues warning. Retrieved March 15, 2016, from http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/jul/01/great-barrier-reef-spared-unesco-in-danger-listing-un
• Threats to the Great Barrier Reef. (n.d.). Retrieved March 15, 2016, from http://www.greatbarrierreef.com.au/information/great-barrier-reef-threats/

To understand one of the most powerful control on weather across the planet, we have to comprehend how and where one of the strongest El Nino in a generation generates and grows. A thousand miles south of Hawaii, very strong trade winds from northern and southern meet creating thick storm clouds and icy cirrus haze together with overheated waters that generates energy into the atmosphere and as a consequence roiling weather worldwide. That is the dominant power of El Nino.

All the information collected in this area, at the heart of El Nino, and together with weather models (studied in Module 4), will improve forecasting of the storm’s effect on weather and to better understand how all this process develops. The effects of El Nino can lead to more winter rain to the United States but more dry conditions to southern Africa, an area that has already being affected by droughts. So like with any model, data is a key factor. This is why we have been developing better satellites and networks to develop better representations and measure sea-surface temperatures and other ocean characteristics. To understand El Nino better, data must be also obtained from the atmosphere, since it occurs when the trade winds stop moving.

So scientists keep developing techniques to understand and predict El Nino better since the rain that the storm delivers in some areas is essential to the ecology but also to better predict typhoons, rainstorms and droughts.

References:

• Fountain, H. (2016, February 01). Studying the Heart of El Niño, Where Its Weather Begins. Retrieved February 23, 2016, from http://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/02/science/where-el-nino-weather-begins-pacific-ocean-noaa.html

• Bromwich, J. (2015, December 16). Understanding El Niño. Retrieved February 23, 2016, from http://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/17/science/understanding-el-nino.html?_r=0

The temperature would rise enough to melt the the entire Antarctica ice sheets if all the oil, natural gas and coil were burned. The sea level would rise by more than 160 feet, leading to catastrophic consequences like putting the entire East Coast and large parts of Europe and Asia under water, having to rapid retreat from coastal big cities like New York, Miami, London, Tokyo and Sydney.

As we studied, if the Antarctica keeps melting at this pace, half of the ice sheets would disappear leading to a rise of a foot per decade (10 times faster than it is now). World top leaders have assumed the dangers of remaining burning all fossil fuels. This is why the most powerful nations will meet in Paris in another attempt for reducing emissions, yet they have been dealing with this problem for the last 30 years and so far the limit has not been effectively set.

However, the ice sheets act slowly enough to changes in the climate that takes more than a hundred years for large-scale melting to begin. So though the climate is still in the earlier stages of this shift, the Western part of the Antarctica are displaying severe signs of instability. By 22^nd century, a complete destruction of the world’s land ice would be melted.

References:

• Gillis, J. (2015, September 11). Study Predicts Antarctica Ice Melt if All Fossil Fuels Are Burned. Retrieved February 21, 2016, from http://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/12/science/climate-study-predicts-huge-sea-level-rise-if-all-fossil-fuels-are-burned.html

• Antarctic ice is melting so fast the whole continent may be at risk by 2100. (2015, October 12). Retrieved February 21, 2016, from http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/oct/12/antarctic-ice-melting-so-fast-whole-continent-may-be-at-risk-by-2100

James Hansen, a scientist that worked for NASA, and along with sixteen other researchers, have released a new study drawing a scenario of potential rapid sea level rise and powerful storm systems. One of the final conclusions of the report is that the two degrees Celsius global warming is certainly hazardous. The sign concerning quickening ice loss from some fragments of the planet’s ice sheets could lead to an irreversible situation that could be as short as ten years. This study suggests that sea level rises be around one meter by 2100. That is, if the ocean remains accumulating heat and increasing melting ice shelves of Antarctica and Greenland, a point will be reached at which it is impossible to avoid large scale ice sheets collapse with sea level rise of at least several meters, as I discussed in my blog 2.

Based on this climate model suggests that major ice loss will change the flow of the oceans, as big volumes of cold, fresh water pour into the seas. That would decrease the salinity of the ocean and both poles, that could eventually block the ocean’s overturning circulation. That would also warm the tropics more but lead to colder poles, leading to a large contrast in temperatures between middle latitudes and the poles. Then, that situation would lead to dominant storms. The conclusion is that sea level rise is the biggest impact of human made climate change, according to the report.

References:

• Mooney, C. (2015, July 20). The world’s most famous climate scientist just outlined an alarming scenario for our planet’s future. Retrieved February 09, 2016, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2015/07/20/the-worlds-most-famous-climate-scientist-just-outlined-an-alarming-scenario-for-our-planets-future/

• Revkin, A. (2015, July 23). Whiplash Warning When Climate Science is Publicized Before Peer Review and Publication. Retrieved February 09, 2016, from http://dotearth.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/07/23/whiplash-warning-when-climate-science-is-publicized-before-peer-review-and-publication/?rref=collection/timestopic/Hansen, James E.

Global concentrations of carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere exceeded 400 parts per million in average per month last spring breaking a new absolute record and achieving a meaningful concentration level set by important scientists and policy makers. But carbon dioxide is not the only greenhouse gas that broke records last year; methane and nitrous oxide also reached major levels that show how concentrations are increasing with rising rates.

If greenhouse gas emissions keep escalating at this pace that could eventually lead to catastrophic consequences. If carbon dioxide levels reach 560 parts per million, that is double their preindustrial levels, the feedback loop would cause water vapor and clouds to increase atmospheric warming to a rate three times what gases can do by themselves. So going back to my last week blog were I talked about global warming and how the temperatures are rising at a really high pace, we would be contributing even more to climate change.

For this reason, seventeen notable New York City hotels have committed to getting greener. The hotels enrolled to this program have pledged to cut greenhouse gas emissions from their buildings by thirty percent or more in the next ten years, helping significantly to cut down New York City’s overall emissions.I could experience that in a hotel in Lebanon, NH, a couple of weeks ago. The hotel, that had recently made a green commitment, incorporates eco-friendly materials and recycling practices in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

References:

• Fleur, N. (2015, November 10). Atmospheric Greenhouse Gas Levels Hit Record, Report Says. Retrieved February 01, 2016, from http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/11/science/atmospheric-greenhouse-gas-levels-hit-record-report-says.html?_r=0
• Fleur, N. (2015, November 10). Atmospheric Greenhouse Gas Levels Hit Record, Report Says. Retrieved February 01, 2016, from http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/11/science/atmospheric-greenhouse-gas-levels-hit-record-report-says.html?_r=0

Most climate models suggest that all the efforts in limit and decrease carbon dioxide emission will not be enough to keep Earth from warming more than 2^oC. So we will not only have to cut emissions off, we will also have to find a way to clean up all the gigantic amounts of carbon dioxide we have already put in the atmosphere in order to prevent even worse impacts in the loss of Antarctic and Arctic ice.

Since 1979, ice has shrunk by more than eleven percent per decade in the Arctic Ocean. Ice helps to cool the Arctic by reflecting part of the heat, so as it keeps shrinking, the temperature increases and thus the melting accelerates. Another big problem related the ice melting in the Arctic Ocean is that once the perennial sea ice is gone, it is practically impossible to get it back. So although the sea surface still freezes in the winter, the ice is never thick enough to survive the summer.

As I cited in my last blog, last year (2015) and the past decade were the warmest since temperature records began. As a result, an enormous part of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet is destined to collapse and therefore make the sea level rise at least four feet in the coming centuries. When sea levels rise rapidly, as they have been doing, even a small increase can have devastating effects on coastal habitats. As seawater reaches farther inland, it can cause destructive erosion, flooding of wetlands, contamination of aquifers and agricultural soils, and lost habitat for fish, birds, and plants. That will make scientists to redraw the map of the planet. Hence, we have a lot of work in front of us if we want to fix this problem.

References:

• Folger, T. (2015, December 23). Santa’s Home Is Melting. Will We Ever Bring It Back? Retrieved January 26, 2016, from http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/12/151223-Arctic-ice-climate-change-global-warming-geoengineering-science/
• Kunzig, R. (2015, October 15). Fresh Hope for Combating Climate Change. Retrieved January 26, 2016, from http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2015/11/climate-change/introduction-text
• Gillis, J. (2016, January 20). 2015 Was Hottest Year in Historical Record, Scientists Say. Retrieved January 24, 2016, from http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/21/science/earth/2015-hottest-year-global-warming.html?_r=0

According to a new study made by researchers at Harvard University and seven other institutions, the overall total methane emissions in the United States is between 1.5 and 1.7 higher than the amounts estimated by the EPA and the EDGAR. This is why the Interior Department proposed on Friday a new rule in order to control the emissions from oil and gas drilling on public land. This new regulation would make oil, gas and coal companies have to pay more to mine and drill on public land and thus reduce the fossil fuel emissions that contribute to climate change. The proposed rule would require producers to adopt currently available technologies, processes, and equipment that would limit the rate of flaring at oil wells on public and tribal lands, make operators periodically inspect their operations for leaks, and replace outdated equipment that vents large quantities of gas into the air.

The objective of the executive is to cut methane emissions by 40 to 45 percent from 2012 levels to 2025. Methane is a greenhouse gas 25 times more potent than carbon dioxide. Both gases contribute to the global warming our planet is experiencing, as 2015 was the hottest year in historical record according to an article published in the NY Times.

The media attention on this topic has increased after a broken pipe has been spewing methane in Los Angeles, California, sending thousands of people from their homes.

References:

• Davenport, C. (2016, January 22). U.S. Moves to Limit Emissions of PlanetWarming Methane. Retrieved January 24, 2016, from http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/23/us/methane-emission-rules-interiordepartment.html?rref=collection/sectioncollection/science
• Perry, C. (2015, November 25). U.S. methane emissions exceed government estimates. Retrieved January 24, 2016, from http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2013/11/u-s-methane-emissions-far-exceedgovernment-estimates/
• Gillis, J. (2016, January 20). 2015 Was Hottest Year in Historical Record, Scientists Say. Retrieved January 24, 2016, from http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/21/science/earth/2015-hottest-year-global-warming.html?_r=0

Hi everyone! My name is Marc Collado and I am a junior majoring in Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering. I try to get involve with different organizations here at Penn State. I am on the varsity men’s tennis team and I can’t wait to start my third season as a Nittany Lion next Saturday. I am also the team representative in the student-athelete organization (SAAB, Student-Athlete Advisory Board) that closely works with the PSU community and Thon. This is not the first online class I take, so I will hopefully stay on top of deadlines. I take this class as a science elective and I really hope to learn the impact human have on the Earth and the challenges our society will face in the future.